The Basics
Last updated: 7 August 2024 following feedback from Dr Nancy Young.
To download as a PDF click: here
We recommend listening or watching this podcast video for an easy to understand overview of Structured Literacy. Features Emma Nahna from Sound Foundations for Literacy.
You can also view a webinar (30 mins) we have done giving an overview of ‘Evidence-based literacy instruction’ as well as a bit of the history of literacy policy in New Zealand over the past 30 years.
Want to understand the basics? The research behind ‘Structured Literacy’ and the teaching practices that stem from that research?
On this page we set out a simple description of a range of terms that provide an introduction to the ‘science of reading’ and ‘structured literacy’. We have also curated a selection of resources we have found that do the best job of introducing people to the research and practice. Enjoy!
Built on decades of research termed “the science of reading”
It is not something new, although it may be new to lots of NZ schools and teachers. Before embarking on learning more about evidence-based literacy instruction, we need to know a little about reading science research, often colloquially termed “the science of reading”. It is not a teaching ‘fad’. This is a vast, interdisciplinary body of scientifically-based research about reading and issues related to reading and writing. This research has been conducted over the last five decades across the world and is derived from thousands of studies conducted in multiple languages. This has culminated in a convergence of evidence to inform how proficient reading and writing develop: why some have difficulty: and how we can effectively assess and teach.
But as with any body of knowledge derived from science, the research and findings build and advance over time, and practitioners need to be prepared to change their practice in response to new findings. There are still many smaller grain aspects of instruction that could benefit from greater research. We don’t know everything there is to know yet, but at the same time, we know enough to do better for all of our students right now.
So it is a very nuanced message we are giving you, perhaps best said by Dr Steven Dykstra, a psychologist and leading follower of research on reading:
“It’s fine to celebrate progress, but don’t think the model [structured literacy] we have now is perfect and will never need to be changed. Don’t do the things we know are wrong: that’s the important part. Things can be approximate enough that it’s useful. Right now, we need to go with what we have.” (Interview on the Literacy View Podcast, 15 December 2023)
Research in these matters started way back in the 1950s and 1960s, mainly by cognitive psychologists. For example, the seminal work by Jeanne Chall at the Harvard Reading Laboratory into the developmental stages of reading springs to mind. And the work of Linnea Ehri, another educational psychologist who, from the 1970s onwards, set out the theoretical basis for how, for every word we know, the phonological (sound) and orthographic (letter) representations are inter-connected. She termed this process “orthographic mapping”.
More recently cognitive neuroscientists have used brain imaging to understand the neural basis of reading. Building on Ehri’s and others’ insights on the orthographic mapping process, from around the turn of the 21st Century, researchers such as Professor Stanislas Dehaene, have used brain imaging to study these theorised language processing pathways in the brain. His research has shown that when we learn to read, we create a new interface between the vision system in our brains and the language system, and the spoken language system. So in essence the notion of ‘whole word’ reading is a myth. So this means teaching approaches based on whole word reading or getting kids to memorise lists of reading words are just not effective. Those are in fact shown to be the techniques that poor readers adopt.
New Zealand also has world leading researchers on language acquisition and reading. Most significant of these are Distinguished Emeritus Professor Bill Tunmer, who developed the Simple View of Reading Model, with Philip Gough, and the Cognitive Foundations Framework, and his Massey University colleague Professor Emeritus James Chapman. Together they have had a productive research partnership to explore what is/was shown to be ineffective with Aotearoa New Zealand’s approach to literacy instruction and how they could be improved.
Structured Literacy methodologies are built on theoretical models, such as the Simple View of Reading Framework. The Simple View formula presented by Gough and Tunmer in 1986 is:
Decoding (D) x Language Comprehension (LC) = Reading Comprehension (RC)
Gough and Tumner (1986) proposed the Simple View of Reading to clarify the role of decoding in reading. Many educators did and still do believe that strong decoding skills are NOT necessary to achieve reading comprehension if language abilities are strong.
Beginning and struggling readers are often taught to compensate for weak decoding by guessing an unfamiliar word based on the first letter or the picture, then asking themselves if the word makes sense after reading the sentence. In contrast, when decoding is the focus of instruction students are taught to sound out unfamiliar words using all the letters and to practise reading accurately until an adequate reading rate is achieved, along with accurate decoding.
The Simple View formula has been supported and validated by a number of research studies. Understanding the formula will help educators with assessing reading weaknesses and providing appropriate instruction.
Another popular model is the “Reading Rope” from Hollis Scarborough. According to the IDA website, the genesis of the Reading Rope dates back to Scarborough’s lectures for parents on the complexities involved in learning to read. Originally, she spoke of skilled reading as resembling the “strands” of a rope, using pipe cleaners to illustrate the interconnectedness and interdependence of all the components.
The Reading Rope consists of lower and upper strands. The word-recognition strands (phonological awareness, decoding, and sight recognition of familiar words) work together as the reader becomes accurate, fluent, and increasingly automatic with repetition and practice. Concurrently, the language-comprehension strands (background knowledge, vocabulary, language structures, verbal reasoning, and literacy knowledge) reinforce one another and then weave together with the word-recognition strands to produce a skilled reader. This does not happen overnight; it requires instruction and practice over time.
The Science of Reading does not support the three-cueing system of reading instruction commonly used in reading instruction in NZ. The three-cueing system is a seriously flawed conception of the processes involved in skilled reading. It teaches learners to use picture cues, word shape, first letter(s) and context to identify unknown words, as well as memorising a large number of high frequency words. The three-cueing system is a substandard, and in some cases, counterproductive form of literacy instruction as the cues deflect learners from the word itself and encourages them to use context, due to their lack of the decoding skills necessary to recognise unknown words.
Further information:
For another great synopsis of the science of reading and the different theoretical models used, see DEB (Dyslexia evidence based) website.
The Dyslexia Kete on the Ministry of Education website has simple explanations of the Simple View of Reading and The Reading Rope.
The information on the Simple View of Reading has been copied from the Reading Rockets website.
The information on the Reading Rope above is copied from the IDA website.
This short video (6min) explanation of the underlying neural mechanism behind reading by Stephanie Stollar of the Reading Science Academy breaks down the heavy academic content really well and we would highly recommend you watching.
For a summary of the research that makes up the “science of reading” see “The Science of Reading: Defining Guide (2022)” from The Reading League.
For more on orthographic mapping see this short video clip by Lifelong Literacy.For more on the history of literacy teaching in New Zealand and why change has been so hard to achieve see this recording of a presentation from Professor James Chapman at a NZI event held in 2023. Also see this graphic from a report we did in 2020 at previous missed opportunities for reform.
For an interview with Professor Bill Tunmer see this video from 2021.
For an interview with Professor James Chapman see this video from 2021.
Key insights from the research
Key insights from the research
Learning to read is not a natural skills we are born with
This is the key insight to accept before embarking on more learning. Many of us think that learning to read just happens somehow. We have all heard accounts of precocious readers, learning to read by themselves before they start school, or those who seem to need little assistance along the way. We think learning to read is much like learning to talk or walk.
But cognitive neuroscientists have proven that this is not true (more on that below). Learning to read is something most of us have to be ‘taught’ to do. It is a cultural invention that our brains have not evolved to do on their own.
In fact, to become an independent reader, the brain of each child must undergo change. New neural pathways have to be formed and strengthened. And instruction and practice is the way that happens. So leaving kids to acquire reading through exposure to books, being read to, and instilling a love of reading, or even using a smattering of incidental phonics teaching is not sufficient for almost all children.
Teachers and their instruction are a key part of process
The second key insight is that teachers, and their instruction, are a key part of making the job of learning to read (and write) easier and more effective for all children. This is not to negate the challenges that poverty, home life, and other socio-economic circumstances can create for children and their learning. But there is solid research showing that despite those conditions, teaching can overcome the barriers and result in good literacy outcomes for those children. If schools in the Kimberley Region in Western Australia, with high levels of disadvantage and attendance around 50% can significantly raise their students’ literacy outcomes, then it is possible here in Aotearoa too. In fact many schools in New Zealand have already proven that, for example Central Normal School in Palmerston North and Robertson Road School in Mangere, South Auckland.
Reading problems can be prevented if we act early
The third key insight from the research is that we can prevent reading problems for almost every student. This insight builds on approaches to reducing risk in other areas, like public health. We should not wait for students to fail or fall behind, we should use screening tests to identify early on which students might be more at risk of reading and writing difficulties and then be prepared to put in additional supports as soon as possible to nip any issues in the bud early.
A well functioning multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS) model is central to preventing reading problems. In this approach, the job of tier 1, evidence-based whole class instruction is to reduce the risk of reading failure. With whole class instruction, individual students can still have different supports provided to them within that instruction and we should expect at least 80% of our students to reach curriculum level from tier 1 whole class instruction. The most important piece of tier 1 instruction is the use of screening data to inform how it should look. The job of tier 2 is to catch up the 15 to 20% of the students who are at risk, and if students are not making progress and catching up with tiers 1 and 2, then we intensify support.
You can't implement MTSS without a good assessment system. All assessments answer questions, and the MTSS model has particular questions that have to be answered. Two of those are: which students are at risk and which systems are at risk? Those are screening questions. That's identifying who needs support. You also need to know exactly what to teach tomorrow. That's a diagnostic question. You're going to have to have diagnostic assessments in all five early literacy skill areas: phonemic awareness, phonics and decoding text, reading fluency, vocabulary and reading comprehension. You need diagnostic tools in each of those. Then you also need to know if your instruction is working in real time, and whether you should make a change or keep doing what you’re doing. That's a progress monitoring question. So in an MTSS approach to service delivery, you need assessments for screening, diagnostic and progress monitoring.
Further information:
For a detailed discussion on the MTSS model and different tiers of instruction, different assessment tools and common misconceptions of what and how to teach across the tiers, listen to this podcast from Stephanie Stollar.
There is a continuum of needs with explicit and implicit teaching both having roles to play
The fourth key insight from the research is that there is a continuum of needs and teachers must determine when explicit teaching is best and when students would benefit more from implicit learning opportunities. Being aware of the wide variation is key to understanding that instruction will depend on need; there cannot be a one-size-fits-all because our children will vary in the ease at which their brain will change to acquire the skills of reading and writing.
Some children require a more systematic and explicit approach during which skills are built in a cumulative manner yet other children require far less instruction and repetition – if any. Different instruction based on need is essential to enable ALL students to progress. Inappropriate instruction (such as phonemic awareness or step-by-step phonics instruction for those who can already read) is likely to delay reading and writing development.
Implicit learning (as defined by Nancy Young for her Ladder of Reading and Writing) is:
“learning that is ongoing and happens without conscious awareness; the opposite of explicit learning. Most learning – even the learning needed to read and write proficiently – happens through implicit learning. Children in the dark green generally learn to read implicitly, with no formal instruction; for other students, some explicit instruction enables the implicit learning process to happen (jumpstarts the process). For those with reading disabilities, much more explicit instruction is likely to be necessary.”
Further information:
Nancy Young Ladder of Reading and Writing
For more on implicit learning and ‘set for variability’ see this short video from Stephanie Stollar.
Structured literacy
Overall description
If only it were easy to describe structured literacy in one word or even one sentence. Alas it is not. Far from it.
So soundbites like structured literacy is “phonics”, or “a one size fits all” way of teaching, or “going back to basics”, or “just about teaching reading in years 0-3”, are inadequate to convey what evidence-based literacy teaching actually is. It cannot be reduced to a soundbite. So please read on to be enlightened.
In New Zealand, structured literacy is a catch-all concept to describe effective literacy teaching informed by findings from decades of research into how we learn and how we develop reading and writing skills. It means harnessing decades of research (colloquially termed “the science of reading”) on language acquisition, reading and writing development, and using that knowledge to inform teaching, right from the early years up to the end of the schooling years.
The term itself comes from the International Dyslexia Foundation (IDA), a not-for-profit organisation based in the United States that provides advocacy, resources and services to teachers and individuals and families impacted by dyslexia and other related learning differences. Hence, Structured Literacy approaches have tended to be associated with those students in the red and orange areas of the Ladder of Reading of Writing, who require a comprehensive and analytical approach that is code-based, explicit, intensive and with frequent repetition.
But as described before, the teaching approach needs to adjust based on the continuum of needs, or the continuum of the ease of reading and writing as described by Nancy Young’s Ladder of Reading and Writing. So structured literacy is about needs based and responsive teaching using what we know from cognitive science and research into reading and writing acquisition to adjust our teaching along a continuum that is highly code based, explicit and intensive for those students in the red and orange parts of the continuum to a less explicit approach that increasingly harnesses the power of implicit, or statistical learning and provides opportunities for extension and enrichment for those students that are ready for that.
In New Zealand, other terms are also used, such as ‘structured approaches to literacy’. The term used is not so important, it’s the teaching principles and the components of literacy that need to be taught, derived from research findings accumulated over decades, that defines this approach to teaching reading, writing and spelling.
Ministry of Education description
The New Zealand Ministry of Education set out the following working definition of ‘Structured Literacy’ in June, when they went to tender for Structured Literacy PLD providers to rollout training to teachers from Term 3 of 2024. Looking at this description alongside the IDA description of Structured Literacy you can see there is a lot of commonality between the two versions. The Ministry base their working definition on the elements of structured literacy approaches, including for the purpose of reading and writing:
phonemic awareness,
systematic synthetic phonics teaching and knowledge,
using a scope and sequence,
fluency,
comprehension,
oral language,
vocabulary,
handwriting,
syntax, and
text structure
Structured literacy teaching is grounded in the science of learning, including:
information processing,
working memory,
cognitive load theory,
repetition and spaced retrieval,
the science of reading/writing acquisition, and
the principles of explicit and intentional teaching, including
being systematic,
precise,
repeated and varied,
cumulative,
diagnostic,
responsive,
based on formative assessment leading to reteaching when necessary, and
gradual release of responsibility.
Further information:
Ministry of Education description
Myths about structured literacy
These are some of the most common misconceptions about structured literacy that we see in discussions on social media or in the media in general.
Structured literacy does NOT mean:
Forgetting about the joy of reading, or the purpose of reading which is to comprehend and learn. The term ‘structured’ may seem to imply a lack of joy, excitement and engagement but this is not a reflection of what students feel when taught in this way. It is a highly engaging and interactive way of teaching that allows students to immediately experience success. It is this feeling of success that drives the ongoing joy and desire to learn more and ultimately enjoy the act of reading.
Teaching only phonics and spelling at the expense of other aspects of literacy. Read alouds from teachers from a wide range of texts is a central part of structured literacy, as is building oral language and vocabulary, teaching handwriting and writing, and increasingly focusing on improving fluency and comprehension.
Only explicit teaching and holding back those who learn more quickly. As students begin to master the decoding aspects that are taught in an explicit, systematic and cumulative way, the balance of instruction shifts more and more towards the language comprehension and writing aspects of literacy. Part of this shift is also a natural decrease in the degree of explicit teaching required as the orthographic mapping process takes hold and children start to benefit more from ‘statistical learning’ or ‘self-teaching’.
Implementing any single teaching programme. For example, it is not just Better Start Literacy Approach (BSLA) and the Phonics Plus books, or Learning Matters’ IDeaL, or Liz Kane’s The Code or any particular decodable book series. These are all resources and tools that can be used to support teaching following a structured literacy approach. There are a wide range of programmes, decodable books and other teaching resources that align to a structured literacy approach and can be used. Teachers can also create these themselves with the right knowledge, but it is often more convenient and efficient to purchase them from others. What is critical is building teacher knowledge and teaching practice and not creating an over-reliance on these resources and tools. Teachers ultimately need to exercise their professional judgement and draw on the totality of their knowledge and experience.
Teaching only through scripted, rigid lessons with no flexibility and taking away teacher autonomy and professionalism. The government is not mandating one teaching sequence or a single ‘programme’. Structured literacy does not expect teachers to all be in lockstep with each other. This new training and knowledge will add to teachers toolkit and body of professional knowledge that they are then expected to deploy using their professional judgement and autonomy in their classrooms so that they tailor to the class of learners in front of them. Lessons involve lots of discussion, games and other active involvement.
Throwing other important things out. There is still lots of time in the school day for other things like free play, the arts, maths, science, social studies and all the other things that make up the curriculum and a school day. These are important for social-emotional learning and development, cultural development, and building broad background knowledge and structured literacy is not a threat to them. Claims that these parts of the school day will be lost is just scaremongering or lack of knowledge about structured literacy teaching.
Further information:
For more on the common myths around learning to read see this blog post or this video by Professor Pamela Snow from La Trobe University.
Videos and Podcasts
How the Brain Learns to Read (short version) - Prof Stanislas Dehaene, a French cognitive neuroscientist
How the Brain Learns to Read (long version) - Prof Stanislas Dehaene, a French cognitive neuroscientist
This short video (6min) explanation of the underlying neural mechanism by Stephanie Stollar of the Reading Science Academy breaks down the heavy academic content really well and we would highly recommend you watching.
These short videos from 2020 by Neuroscientist Dr Jared Cooney Horvath do a good job of simply explaining the ‘Reading Wars’ and what effective literacy instruction needs. Video 1: Phonics vs Whole Words and Video 2: Q&A.
Specifically for parents, this 45 minute webinar by Dr Jennifer Buckingham (Five from Five and MultiLit) explains the five main components of the reading process and gives ways you can support your child’s reading progress at home.
The “Sold a Story” Podcasts and Documentaries by Emily Hanford, a US journalist are also a go-to and eye opening resource for many. While she reports about the situation in America, a similar situation exists in New Zealand.
And if you are interested in the history of reading instruction (in the US at least) and the so called ‘Reading Wars’, this video by Steven Dykstra is fascinating.
Key Lifting Literacy Aotearoa resources
Support for schools, teachers and parents
Webinars; free to watch, there are 8 to choose from
Digital Toolkits; summaries of the webinars available to purchase for $25 each
Directory of public workshops, conferences and other trainings (in person and online) on Structured Literacy for New Zealand teachers, some of them free
Difference between structured literacy and balanced literacy
Policy and advocacy
Our ideas on Structured Literacy PLD rollout (March 2024)
Draft Literacy Policy Whitepaper (December 2023)
Our Call to Action (2021)
LLA Manifesto (2020)
Report on schools’ implementation of a structured literacy approach (July 2023)
Report on literacy curriculum components of Initial Teacher Education programmes in NZ (December 2021)
Report for Select Committee Inquiry on School Attendance (September 2021)
Report on Ready to Read Phonics Plus Books (June 2021)
Go to summary resources
Ladder of Reading and Writing
Nancy Young’s Ladder of Reading and Writing (updated 2023) is recognised widely in the field as a “translational framework” because it encapsulates extensive research presented in an easy-to-understand way, to help build understanding of the wide range of learning needs within our schools. The Ladder of Reading & Writing recognises the full range that exists, from those for whom learning to read is difficult to those who read early and seemingly easily.
International Dyslexia Association (IDA)
Perspectives on Language and Literacy 75th Anniversary Edition: with contributions from leading experts in the field, providing comprehensive perspectives on the importance and practical application of Structured Literacy instruction
The Reading League
Curriculum Evaluation Guidelines (2023). Designed to highlight any non-aligned practices, or “red flags,” that may be present in the areas of: Word Recognition; Language Comprehension; Reading Comprehension; Writing; Assessment
Compass Navigation Tool and Reports. The science of reading marketplace is difficult to navigate and digest. It is often full of misinformation that makes educators, educational leaders, and decision-makers vulnerable to implementing practices that are somehow labeled as “science of reading,” yet they are not aligned with the scientific evidence base. The Reading League Compass provides reliable and understandable guidance for a variety of targeted stakeholders.
Reading League Journal. Leading publication dedicated to connecting the science of reading to educator’s professional practice
Other websites
This website (R.I.S.E Arkansas) does a great job of summarising the research and teaching approach, and the differences between a structured literacy approach and a balanced literacy approach. Lots of great graphics.
This short infographic video (EducationNC, 8mins) presents the key findings from the science of reading clearly.
Five from Five The Five from Five project was developed with the objective of promoting effective, evidence-based reading instruction, by providing free resources to teachers, principals and parents and advocating for evidence-based policy with politicians and policy makers. Australian based.
Reading Rockets An American national public media literacy initiative offering information and resources on how young kids learn to read, why so many struggle, and how caring adults can help.
Cox Campus from the Rollins Institute. Founded to break the cycle of illiteracy for children who have experienced a generational lack of access to educational opportunity, the Rollins Center for Language & Literacy is dedicated to deep reading brain construction for every child through facilitation and coaching in regional schools and, on a global scale, through the free online Cox Campus. Offers a free 25 hour online IDA accredited Structured Literacy course.
Catalyst: Catholic Education Canberra and Goulburn Informed by the Science of Learning and Science of Reading, Catalyst will develop excellent Principals, Leadership Teams and teachers in all Catholic Education Archdiocese of Canberra & Goulburn (CECG) schools through evidence-based professional learning programs. Catalyst provides support for schools through high-quality resourcing in Curriculum – what we teach, Pedagogy – how we teach and Assessment – how we know. Catalyst provides professional learning for teachers in High Impact Teaching Practice and Systematic Synthetic Phonics.
Australian Education Research Organisation (AERO). Australia's independent education evidence body. Conduct research and share knowledge to promote better educational outcomes for Australian children and young people. They generate high-quality evidence; present the evidence in ways that are relevant and accessible; encourage adoption and effective implementation of evidence in practice and policy.
Ochre Education. An Australian not-for -profit committed to advancing student outcomes and closing the disadvantage gap by supporting teachers to teach, and enabling all Australian students to access a high-quality curriculum, through our online library. They achieve this by working with a community of teachers to develop and support the use of an expertly-sequenced curriculum, alongside a comprehensive library which collects, curates and distributes free, evidence-based, quality-assured, and curriculum-linked teaching resources, to be adapted and used by any teacher anywhere.
Seminal reports
The Science of Reading. Evidence for a New Era of Reading Instruction - Laura Stewart
Teaching Reading is Rocket Science, 2020. What Expert Teachers of Reading Should Know and Be Able to Do - Louisa C. Moats
Ending the Reading Wars: Reading Acquisition from Novice to Expert - Anne Castles, Kathleen Rastle and Kate Nation, 2018
What Research Tells us about Reading Instruction - Rebecca Treiman, University of Illinois
Effective Reading Instruction in the Early Years of School - NSW Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation, 2016
NZ-based research
Why the New Zealand National Literacy Strategy has failed and what can be done about it - Massey University Institute of Education, July 2013
Massey University Early Literacy Research Project - James W. Chapman, Alison W. Arrow, Christine Braid, Keith T. Greaney, and William E. Tunmer, August 2019